Gujarati phonology
Gujarati is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian state of Gujarat. Much of its phonology is derived from Sanskrit.
Contents
1 Vowels
2 Consonants
3 Stress
4 ə-deletion
5 ɑ-reduction
6 [ʋ]-insertion
7 ə-insertion
8 Murmur
9 References
10 Bibliography
Vowels
Front | Central | Back | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | ||
Close-mid | e | ə | o | |
Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ | ||
Open | (æ) | ɑ |
- Sanskrit's phonemic vowel length has been lost.[1] Vowels are long when nasalized or in a final syllable.[2][2]
- Gujarati contrasts oral and nasal, and murmured and non-murmured vowels,[2] except for /e/ and /o/.[3]
- In absolute word-final position the higher and lower vowels of the /e ɛ/ and /o ɔ/ sets vary.[3]
/ɛ/ and /ɔ/ developed in the 15th century. Old Gujarati split into Rajasthani and Middle Gujarati.[4]
- English loanwords are a source of /æ/.[5]
Consonants
Labial | Dental/ Alveolar | Retroflex | Postal. /Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ɳ | ||||
Plosive | voiceless | p | t | ʈ | tʃ | k | |
voiced | b | d | ɖ | dʒ | ɡ | ||
aspirated | (pʰ) | tʰ | ʈʰ | tʃʰ | kʰ | ||
murmured | bʱ | dʱ | ɖʱ | dʒʱ | ɡʱ | ||
Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | |||
voiced | (z) | ɦ | |||||
Approximant | ʋ | l | ɭ̆[6] | j | |||
Flap | ɾ |
- The retroflex lateral flap /ɭ̆/ may be more concisely transcribed with the non-IPA symbol ⟨⟩, though this may not display properly in some browsers.
- A fourth nasal phoneme is postulated for the phones [ɲ, ŋ] and the nasalization of a preceding vowel [Ṽ].[7][7] Before velar and palatal stops, there is variation between these; e.g. [mɑ̃ɡʋũ]~[mɑŋɡʋũ] ('ask for'), [ɦĩtʃko]~[ɦĩɲtʃko] ('swing').[8]
- Stops occurring at first members of clusters followed by consonants other than /ɾ, j, ʋ/ are unreleased; they are optionally unreleased in final position. The absence of release entails deaspiration of voiceless stops.[9]
Intervocalically and with murmuring of vowels, the voiced aspirated stops /ɡʱ, dʱ, bʱ/ have voiced spirant allophones [ɣ, ð, β]. Spirantization of non-palatal voiceless aspirates has been reported as well,[9] including /pʰ/ being usually realized as [f] in the standard dialect.[9]
- The voiced retroflex stops and the nasal /ɖʱ, ɖ, ɳ/ have flapped allophones [ɽʱ, ɽ, ɽ̃]. Intervocalically all three are flapped. /ɳ/ is unflapped before retroflex stops, and in final position varies freely between flapped and unflapped.[7] The stops are unflapped initially, geminated, and postnasally; and flapped intervocalically, finally, and before or after other consonants.[6]
/ʋ/ has [v] and [w] as allophones.[10]
- The distribution of sibilants varies over dialects and registers.
- Some dialects only have [s], others prefer [ʃ], while another system has them non-contrasting, with [ʃ] occurring contiguous to palatal segments. Retroflex [ʂ] still appears in clusters in which it precedes another retroflex: [spəʂʈ] ('clear').[11]
- Some speakers maintain [z] as well for Persian and English borrowings. Persian's /z/'s have by and large been transposed to /dʒ/ and /dʒʱ/: /dʒindɡi/ ('life') and /tʃidʒʱ/ ('thing'). The same cannot be so easily said for English: /tʃiz/ ('cheese').
- Lastly, a colloquial register has [s], or both [s] and [ʃ], replaced by voiceless [h]. For educated speakers speaking this register, this replacement does not extend to Sanskrit borrowings.[9]
- Some dialects only have [s], others prefer [ʃ], while another system has them non-contrasting, with [ʃ] occurring contiguous to palatal segments. Retroflex [ʂ] still appears in clusters in which it precedes another retroflex: [spəʂʈ] ('clear').[11]
Phonotactical constraints include:
/ɭ/ and /ɳ/ do not occur word-initially.[2]
Clusters occur initially, medially, and finally. Geminates occur only medially.[2]
- Biconsonantal initial clusters beginning with stops have /ɾ/, /j/, /ʋ/, and /l/ as second members.[12] In addition to these, in loans from Sanskrit the clusters /ɡn/ and /kʃ/ may occur.
The occurrence of /ɾ/ as a second member in consonantal clusters is one of Gujarati's conservative features as a modern Indo-Aryan language. For example, languages used in Asokan inscriptions (3rd century BC) display contemporary regional variations, with words found in Gujarat's Girnar inscriptions containing clusters with /ɾ/ as the second member not having /ɾ/ in their occurrence in inscriptions elsewhere. This is maintained even to today, with Gujarati /tɾ/ corresponding to Hindi /t/ and /tt/.[13]
- Initially, s clusters biconsonantally with /ɾ, j, ʋ, n, m/, and non-palatal voiceless stops.[12]
- Triconsonantal initial clusters include /stɾ, spɾ, smɾ/ - most of which occur in borrowings.[12]
- Geminates were previously treated as long consonants, but they are better analyzed as clusters of two identical segments. Two proofs for this:[7]
- The u in geminated uccār "pronunciation" sounds more like the one in clustered udgār ('utterance') than the one in shortened ucāṭ ('anxiety').
- Geminates behave towards (that is, disallow) [ə]-deletion like clusters do.
Gemination can serve as intensification. In some adjectives and adverbs, a singular consonant before the agreement vowel can be doubled for intensification.[14] #VCũ → #VCCũ.
big | [moʈũ] | [moʈʈũ] | big |
straight | [sidʱũ] | [siddʱũ] | straight |
considerably | [kʰɑsũ] | [kʰɑssũ] | considerably |
Stress
The matter of stress is not quite clear:
- Stress is on the first syllable except when it doesn't have /a/ and the second syllable does.[15]
- Stress is barely perceptible.[16]
- Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable of a word, however, if the penultimate vowel in a word with more than two syllables is schwa, stress falls on the preceding syllable.[17][dead link]
ə-deletion
Schwa-deletion, along with a-reduction and [ʋ]-insertion, is a phonological process at work in the combination of morphemes. It is a common feature among Indo-Aryan languages, referring to the deletion of a stem's final syllable's /ə/ before a suffix starting with a vowel.[15]
This does not apply for monosyllabic stems and consonant clusters. So, better put, #VCəC + V# → #VCCV#. It also doesn't apply when the addition is an o plural marker (see Gujarati grammar#Nouns) or e as an ergative case marker (see Gujarati grammar#Postpositions).[18]}} It sometimes doesn't apply for e as a locative marker.
Stem | Suffix | Suffixed stem | C/V | Del | Notes | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
verb root | [keɭəʋ] | educate | [iʃ] | 1st person singular, future | [keɭʋiʃ] | will educate | CVCəC + VC → CVCCVC | Yes | Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (verbal declension). |
[səmədʒ] | understand | [jɑ] | masculine plural, perfective | [səmdʒjɑ] | understood | CVCəC + CV → CVCCCV | Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a semi-vowel (verbal declension). | ||
[utəɾ] | descend | [to] | masculine singular, imperfective | [utəɾto] | descending | VCəC + CV → VCəCCV | No | Suffix starting with a consonant. | |
[təɾ] | swim, float | [ɛ] | 2nd person singular, present | [təɾɛ] | swimming, floating | CəC + V → CəCV | Monosyllabic. | ||
[ʋəɾɳəʋ] | describe | [i] | feminine, perfective | [ʋəɾɳəʋi] | described | CVCCəC + VC → CVCCəCVC | Consonant cluster. | ||
[ɑɭoʈ] | wallow, roll | [iʃũ] | 1st person plural, future | [ɑɭoʈiʃũ] | will wallow, roll | VCoC + VCV → VCoCVCV | Non-ə. | ||
noun | [ɑɭəs] | laziness | [ũ] | adjectival marker | [ɑɭsũ] | lazy | VCəC + V → VCCV | Yes | Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (adjectival marking). |
[ʋəkʰət] | time | [e] | locative marker | [ʋəkte] | at (the) time | CVCəC + V → CVCCV | Sometimes yes — e as a locative marker. | ||
[diʋəs] | day | [diʋəse] | on (the) day | CVCəC + V → CVCəCV | No | Sometimes no — e as a locative marker. | |||
[ɾəmət] | game | [o] | plural marker | [ɾəməto] | games | CVCəC + V → CVCəCV | Plural o number marker suffix. | ||
adjective | [ɡəɾəm] | hot | [i] | noun marker | [ɡəɾmi] | heat | CVCəC + V → CVCCV | Yes | Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (noun marking). |
ɑ-reduction
A stem's final syllable's /ɑ/ will reduce to /ə/ before a suffix starting with /ɑ/. #ɑC(C) + ɑ# → #eC(C)ɑ#. This can be seen in the derivation of nouns from adjective stems, and in the formation of passive and causative forms of verb stems.[19]
Stem | Suffix | Suffixed Stem | Red | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
cut | [kɑp] | [ɑ] | [kəpɑ] | be cut | Passive | Yes |
[ɑʋ] | [kəpɑʋ] | cause to cut | Causative | |||
cause to cut | [kəpɑʋ] | [ɑ] | [kəpɑʋɑ] | cause to be cut | Causative Passive | No[a] |
[ɖɑʋ] | [kəpɑʋɖɑʋ] | cause to cause to cut | Double Causative | |||
use | [ʋɑpəɾ] | [ɑ] | [ʋəpɾɑ][b] | be used | Passive | Yes |
long | [lɑmb] | [ɑi] | [ləmbɑi] | length | Noun |
^ It does not happen a second time.
^ It can take place after an ə-deletion. #ɑCəC + ɑ# → #əCCɑ#.
[ʋ]-insertion
Between a stem ending in a vowel and its suffix starting with a vowel, a [ʋ] is inserted.[20] #V + V# → #VʋV#. This can be seen in the formation of passive and causative forms of verb stems.
Stem | Suffix | Suffixed stem | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
see | [dʒo] | [ɑ] | [dʒoʋɑ] | be seen |
sing | [ɡɑ] | [ɑɽ] | [ɡəʋɑɽ] | cause to sing |
The second example shows an ɑ-reduction as well.
ə-insertion
ə finds itself inserted between the emphatic particle /dʒ/ and consonant-terminating words it postpositions.[21]
one | [ek] | [ekədʒ] | one |
that | [e] | [edʒ] | that |
Murmur
/ɦ/ serves as a source for murmur, of which there are three rules:[22]
Rule | Formal[a] | Casual | English | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Word-initial ɦV → V̤[b] | [ɦəʋe] | [ə̤ʋe] | now |
[ɦɑɽkũ] | [ɑ̤ɽkũ] | bone | ||
2 | əɦVnon-high → V̤non-high, more open | [səɦelũ] | [sɛ̤lũ] | easy |
[bəɦoɭũ] | [bɔ̤ɭũ] | large | ||
[dəɦɑɽo] | [da̤ɽo][c] | day | ||
3 | ə/aɦVhigh → ə̤/ɑ̤ (glide) | [ɾəɦi] | [ɾə̤j] | stayed |
[bəɦu] | [bə̤ʋ] | very |
^ Gujarati spelling reflects this mode. The script has no direct notation for murmur.
^ Rule 1 creates allomorphs for nouns. For example, /ɦəd/ ('limit') by itself can be ə̤d, but can only be ɦəd in beɦəd ('limitless').
^ More open.
The table below compares declensions of the verbs [kəɾʋũ] ('to do') and [kɛ̤ʋũ] ('to say'). The former follows the regular pattern of the stable root /kəɾ/ serving as a point for characteristic suffixations. The latter, on the other hand, is deviant and irregular in this respect.
Infinitive | Perfective | Imperative | 1sg. Future |
---|---|---|---|
[kəɾʋũ] | [kəɾjũ] | [kəɾo] | [kəɾiʃ] |
[kɛ̤ʋũ] | [kəɦjũ] | [kɔ̤] | [kə̤jʃ] |
The [kɛ̤ʋũ] situation can be explained through murmur. If to a formal or historical root of /kəɦe/ these rules are considered then predicted, explained, and made regular is the irregularity that is [kɛ̤ʋũ] (romanized as kahevũ).
Thus below are the declensions of [kɛ̤ʋũ] /ɦ/-possessing, murmur-eliciting root /kəɦe/, this time with the application of the murmur rules on the root shown, also to which a preceding rule must be taken into account:
- 0. A final root vowel gets deleted before a suffix starting with a non-consonant.
Rule | Infinitive | Perfective | Imperative | 1sg. Future |
---|---|---|---|---|
[kəɦe-ʋũ] | [kəɦe-jũ] | [kəɦe-o] | [kəɦe-iʃ] | |
0 | [kəɦ-jũ] | [kəɦ-o] | [kəɦ-iʃ] | |
2 | [kɛ̤-ʋũ] | [kɔ̤] | ||
3 | [kə̤-jʃ] | |||
→ | [kɛ̤ʋũ] | [kəɦjũ] | [kɔ̤] | [kə̤jʃ] |
However, in the end not all instances of /ɦ/ become murmured and not all murmur comes from instances of /ɦ/.
One other predictable source for murmur is voiced aspirated stops. A clear vowel followed by a voiced aspirated stop can vary with a pair gaining murmur and losing aspiration: #VCʱ ←→ #V̤C.
References
^ Mistry (2003), p. 115.
^ abcde Mistry (2003), p. 116.
^ ab Cardona & Suthar (2003), p. 662.
^ Mistry (2003), pp. 115–116.
^ Mistry (1996), pp. 391–393.
^ ab Masica (1991), p. 97.
^ abcd Mistry (1997), p. 659.
^ Cardona & Suthar (2003), p. 665.
^ abcd Cardona (2003), p. 665.
^ Mistry (2001), p. 275.
^ Mistry (1997), p. 658.
^ abc Cardona & Suthar (2003), p. 666.
^ Mistry (2001), p. 274.
^ Mistry (1997), p. 670.
^ ab Mistry (1997), p. 660.
^ Campbell (1991), p. ?.
^ UCLA Language Materials Project: Gujarati. Retrieved on 2007-04-29
^ Mistry (1997), pp. 661–662.
^ Mistry (1997), p. 662.
^ Mistry (1997), p. 663.
^ Cardona & Suthar (2003), p. 667.
^ Mistry (1997), pp. 666–668.
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