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A physical constant, sometimes fundamental physical constant or universal constant, is a physical quantity that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and have constant value in time. It is contrasted with a mathematical constant, which has a fixed numerical value, but does not directly involve any physical measurement.

There are many physical constants in science, some of the most widely recognized being the speed of light in vacuum c, the gravitational constant G, the Planck constant h, the electric constant ε₀, and the elementary charge e. Physical constants can take many dimensional forms: the speed of light signifies a maximum speed for any object and its dimension is length divided by time; while the fine-structure constant α, which characterizes the strength of the electromagnetic interaction, is dimensionless.

The term fundamental physical constant is sometimes used to refer to universal but dimensioned physical constants such as those mentioned above.^[1] Increasingly, however, physicists reserve the use of the term fundamental physical constant for dimensionless physical constants, such as the fine-structure constant α.

Physical constant in the sense under discussion in this article should not be confused with other quantities called "constants" that are assumed to be constant in a given context without the implication that they are fundamental, such as the "time constant" characteristic of a given system, or material constants, such as the Madelung constant, electrical resistivity, heat capacity.

On November 16, 2018, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures voted to redefine several base units in the International System of Units (SI) by fixing the SI value of several physical constants, including the Planck constant, h, elementary charge, e, Boltzmann constant, k, Avogadro constant, N_A, and the speed of light, c. The new fixed values are based on the best measurements of the constants based on the earlier definitions, including the kilogram, to ensure minimal impact.

Choice of units

Whereas the physical quantity indicated by a physical constant does not depend on the unit system used to express the quantity, the numerical values of dimensional physical constants do depend on choice of unit system.
The term "physical constant" refers to the physical quantity, and not to the numerical value within any given system of units. For example, the speed of light is defined as having the numerical value of 299,792,458 in SI units, and as having the numerical value of 1 in natural units. While its numerical value can be defined at will by the choice of units, the speed of light itself is a single physical constant.

Any ratio between physical constants of the same dimensions results in a dimensionless physical constant, for example, the proton-to-electron mass ratio. Any relation between physical quantities can be expressed as a relation between dimensionless ratios via a process known as nondimensionalisation.

The term of "fundamental physical constant" is reserved for physical quantities which, according to the current state of knowledge, are regarded as immutable and as non-derivable from more fundamental principles. Notable examples are the speed of light c, and the gravitational constant G.^[2]

The fine-structure constant α is the best known dimensionless fundamental physical constant. It is the value of the elementary charge squared expressed in Planck units. This value has become a standard example when discussing the derivability or non-derivability of physical constants. Introduced by Arnold Sommerfeld, its value as determined at the time was consistent with 1/137. This motivated Arthur Eddington (1929) to construct an argument why its value might be 1/137 precisely, which related to the Eddington number, his estimate of the number of protons in the Universe.^[3] By the 1940s, it became clear that the value of the fine-structure constant deviates significantly from the precise value of 1/137, refuting Eddington's argument.^[4]

With the development of quantum chemistry in the 20th century, however, a vast number of previously inexplicable dimensionless physical constants were successfully computed from theory. In light of that, some theoretical physicists still hope for continued progress in explaining the values of other dimensionless physical constants.

It is known that the Universe would be very different if these constants took values significantly different from those we observe. For example, a few percent change in the value of the fine structure constant would be enough to eliminate stars like our Sun. This has prompted attempts at anthropic explanations of the values of some of the dimensionless fundamental physical constants.

Natural units

Using dimensional analysis, it is possible to combine dimensional universal physical constants to define a system of units of measurement that has no reference to any human construct. Depending on the choice and arrangement of constants used, the resulting natural units may have useful physical meaning. For example, Planck units, shown in the table below, use c, G, ħ, ε₀ and k_B in such a manner to derive units relevant to unified theories such as quantum gravity.

Name	Quantity	Expression	Value (SI units)
Planck length	Length (L)	lP=ℏGc3{displaystyle l_{text{P}}={sqrt {frac {hbar G}{c^{3}}}}}	6965161622900000000♠1.616229(38)×10−35 m[5]
Planck mass	Mass (M)	mP=ℏcG{displaystyle m_{text{P}}={sqrt {frac {hbar c}{G}}}}	6992217647000000000♠2.176470(51)×10−8 kg[6]
Planck time	Time (T)	tP=lPc=ℏmPc2=ℏGc5{displaystyle t_{text{P}}={frac {l_{text{P}}}{c}}={frac {hbar }{m_{text{P}}c^{2}}}={sqrt {frac {hbar G}{c^{5}}}}}	6956539115999999999♠5.39116(13)×10−44 s[7]
Planck charge	Electric charge (Q)	qP=4πε0ℏc{displaystyle q_{text{P}}={sqrt {4pi varepsilon _{0}hbar c}}}	1.875 545 956(41) × 10−18C[8][9][10]
Planck temperature	Temperature (Θ)	TP=mPc2kB=ℏc5GkB2{displaystyle T_{text{P}}={frac {m_{text{P}}c^{2}}{k_{text{B}}}}={sqrt {frac {hbar c^{5}}{Gk_{text{B}}^{2}}}}}	7032141680800000000♠1.416808(33)×1032 K[11]

Number of fundamental constants

The number of fundamental physical constants depends on the physical theory accepted as "fundamental".
Currently, this is the theory of general relativity for gravitation and the Standard Model for electromagnetic, weak and strong nuclear interactions and the matter fields.
Between them, these theories account for a total of 19 independent fundamental constants.
There is, however, no single "correct" way of enumerating them, as it is a matter of arbitrary choice which quantities are considered "fundamental" and which as "derived". Uzan (2011) lists 22 "unknown constants" in the fundamental theories, which give rise to 19 "unknown dimensionless parameters", as follows:

• the gravitational constant G,


• the speed of light c,


• the Planck constant h,


• the 9 Yukawa couplings for the quarks and leptons (equivalent to specifying the rest mass of these elementary particles),


• 2 parameters of the Higgs field potential,


• 4 parameters for the quark mixing matrix,


• 3 coupling constants for the gauge groups SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1) (or equivalently, two coupling constants and the Weinberg angle),


• a phase for the QCD vacuum.

The number of 19 independent fundamental physical constants is subject to change under possible extensions of the Standard Model, notably by the introduction of neutrino mass (equivalent to seven additional constants, i.e. 3 Yukawa couplings and 4 lepton mixing parameters).^[12]

The discovery of variability in any of these constants would be equivalent to the discovery of "new physics".^[13]

The question as to which constants are "fundamental" is neither straightforward nor meaningless, but a question of interpretation of the physical theory regarded as fundamental; as pointed out by Lévy-Leblond 1979, not all physical constants are of the same importance, with some having a deeper role than others.
Lévy-Leblond 1979 proposed a classification schemes of three types of fundamental constant:

• A: characteristic of a particular system


• B: characteristic of a class of physical phenomena


• C: universal constants

The same physical constant may move from one category to another as the understanding of its role deepens; this has notably happened to the speed of light, which was a class A constant (characteristic of light) when it was first measured, but became a class B constant (characteristic of electromagnetic phenomena) with the development of classical electromagnetism, and finally a class C constant with the discovery of special relativity.^[14]

Tests on time-independence

By definition, fundamental physical constants are subject to measurement, so that their being constant (independent on both the time and position of the performance of the measurement) is necessarily an experimental result and subject to verification.

Paul Dirac in 1937 speculated that physical constants such as the gravitational constant or the fine-structure constant might be subject to change over time in proportion of the age of the universe. Experiments can in principle only put an upper bound on the relative change per year. For the fine-structure constant, this upper bound is comparatively low, at
roughly 10⁻¹⁷ per year (as of 2008).^[15]

The gravitational constant is much more difficult to measure with precision, and conflicting measurements in the 2000s have inspired the controversial suggestions of a periodic variation of its value in a 2015 paper.^[16] However, while its value is not known to great precision, the possibility of observing type Ia supernovae which happened in the universe's remote past, paired with the assumption that the physics involved in these events is universal, allows for an upper bound of less than 10⁻¹⁰ per year for the gravitational constant over the last nine billion years.^[17]

Similarly, an upper bound of the change in the proton-to-electron mass ratio has been placed at 10⁻⁷ over a period of 7 billion years (or 10⁻¹⁶ per year) in a 2012 study based on the observation of methanol in a distant galaxy.^[18][19]

It is problematic to discuss the proposed rate of change (or lack thereof) of a single dimensional physical constant in isolation. The reason for this is that the choice of a system of units may arbitrarily select as its basis, making the question of which constant is undergoing change an artefact of the choice of units.^[20][21]

For example, in SI units, the speed of light has been given a defined value in 1983. Thus, it was meaningful to experimentally measure the speed of light in SI units prior to 1983, but it is not so now. Similar, since 2018, the Planck constant has been given a defined value, such that all SI base units are now expressed in terms of fundamental physical constants (the kilogram was the last physical object used to define a base unit until November 2018).

Tests on the immutability of physical constants look at dimensionless quantities, i.e. ratios between quantities of like dimensions, in order to escape this problem. Changes in physical constants are not meaningful if they result in an observationally indistinguishable universe. For example, a "change" in the speed of light c would be meaningless if accompanied by a corresponding change in the elementary charge e so that the ratio e²/(4πε₀ħc) (the fine-structure constant) remained unchanged.^[22]

Fine-tuned Universe

Some physicists have explored the notion that if the dimensionless physical constants had sufficiently different values, our Universe would be so radically different that intelligent life would probably not have emerged, and that our Universe therefore seems to be fine-tuned for intelligent life. The anthropic principle states a logical truism: the fact of our existence as intelligent beings who can measure physical constants requires those constants to be such that beings like us can exist. There are a variety of interpretations of the constants' values, including that of a divine creator (the apparent fine-tuning is actual and intentional), or that ours is one universe of many in a multiverse (e.g. the Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics), or even that, if information is an innate property of the universe and logically inseparable from consciousness, a universe without the capacity for conscious beings cannot exist.

Table of physical constants

Universal constants

Quantity v t e	Symbol	Value[23][24]	Relative standard uncertainty
speed of light in vacuum	c{displaystyle c}	299 792 458 m⋅s−1	defined
Newtonian constant of gravitation	G{displaystyle G}	6989667408000000000♠6.67408(31)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2	4.7 × 10−5
Planck constant	h{displaystyle h}	6.626 070 040(81) × 10−34 J⋅s	1.2 × 10−8
reduced Planck constant	ℏ=h/2π{displaystyle hbar =h/2pi }	1.054 571 800(13) × 10−34 J⋅s	1.2 × 10−8

Electromagnetic constants

Quantity v t e	Symbol	Value[23][24] (SI units)	Relative standard uncertainty
magnetic constant (vacuum permeability)	μ0{displaystyle mu _{0}}	4π × 10−7 N⋅A−2 = 1.256 637 061... × 10−6 N⋅A−2	defined
electric constant (vacuum permittivity)	ε0=1/μ0c2{displaystyle varepsilon _{0}=1/mu _{0}c^{2}}	8.854 187 817... × 10−12 F⋅m−1	defined
characteristic impedance of vacuum	Z0=μ0c{displaystyle Z_{0}=mu _{0}c}	376.730 313 461... Ω	defined
Coulomb's constant	ke=1/4πε0{displaystyle k_{mathrm {e} }=1/4pi varepsilon _{0}}	8.987 551 787 368 176 4 × 109 kg⋅m3⋅s−4⋅A−2	defined
elementary charge	e{displaystyle e}	1.602 176 6208(98) × 10−19 C	6.1 × 10−9
Bohr magneton	μB=eℏ/2me{displaystyle mu _{mathrm {B} }=ehbar /2m_{mathrm {e} }}	9.274 009 994(57) × 10−24 J⋅T−1	6.2 × 10−9
conductance quantum	G0=2e2/h{displaystyle G_{0}=2e^{2}/h}	7.748 091 7310(18) × 10−5 S	2.3 × 10−10
inverse conductance quantum	G0−1=h/2e2{displaystyle G_{0}^{-1}=h/2e^{2}}	12 906.403 7278(29) Ω	2.3 × 10−10
Josephson constant	KJ=2e/h{displaystyle K_{mathrm {J} }=2e/h}	4.835 978 525(30) × 1014 Hz⋅V−1	6.1 × 10−9
magnetic flux quantum	ϕ0=h/2e{displaystyle phi _{0}=h/2e}	2.067 833 831(13) × 10−15 Wb	6.1 × 10−9
nuclear magneton	μN=eℏ/2mp{displaystyle mu _{mathrm {N} }=ehbar /2m_{mathrm {p} }}	5.050 783 699(31) × 10−27 J⋅T−1	6.2 × 10−9
von Klitzing constant	RK=h/e2{displaystyle R_{mathrm {K} }=h/e^{2}}	25 812.807 4555(59) Ω	2.3 × 10−10

Atomic and nuclear constants

Quantity v t e		Symbol	Value[23][24] (SI units)	Relative standard uncertainty
Bohr radius		a0=ℏ/αmec{displaystyle a_{0}=hbar /alpha m_{e}c}	5.291 772 1067(12) × 10−11 m	2.3 × 10−9
classical electron radius		re=e2/4πε0mec2{displaystyle r_{mathrm {e} }=e^{2}/4pi varepsilon _{0}m_{mathrm {e} }c^{2}}	2.817 940 3227(19) × 10−15 m	6.8 × 10−10
electron mass		me{displaystyle m_{mathrm {e} }}	9.109 383 56(11) × 10−31 kg	1.2 × 10−8
Fermi coupling constant		GF/(ℏc)3{displaystyle G_{mathrm {F} }/(hbar c)^{3}}	1.166 3787(6) × 10−5 GeV−2	5.1 × 10−7
fine-structure constant		α=μ0e2c/2h=e2/4πε0ℏc{displaystyle alpha =mu _{0}e^{2}c/2h=e^{2}/4pi varepsilon _{0}hbar c}	7.297 352 5664(17) × 10−3 = 1 / 137.035 999 139(31)	2.3 × 10−10
Hartree energy		Eh=2R∞hc{displaystyle E_{mathrm {h} }=2R_{infty }hc}	4.359 744 650(54) × 10−18 J	1.2 × 10−8
proton mass		mp{displaystyle m_{mathrm {p} }}	1.672 621 898(21) × 10−27 kg	1.2 × 10−8
quantum of circulation		h/2me{displaystyle h/2m_{mathrm {e} }}	3.636 947 5486(17) × 10−4 m2 s−1	4.5 × 10−10
Rydberg constant		R∞=α2mec/2h{displaystyle R_{infty }=alpha ^{2}m_{mathrm {e} }c/2h}	10 973 731.568 508(65) m−1	5.9 × 10−12
Thomson cross section		(8π/3)re2{displaystyle (8pi /3)r_{mathrm {e} }^{2}}	6.652 458 7158(91) × 10−29 m2	1.4 × 10−9
weak mixing angle		sin2⁡θW=1−(mW/mZ)2{displaystyle sin ^{2}theta _{mathrm {W} }=1-(m_{mathrm {W} }/m_{mathrm {Z} })^{2}}	0.2223(21)	9.5 × 10−3
Efimov factor			22.7

Physico-chemical constants

Quantity v t e		Symbol	Value[23][24] (SI units)	Relative standard uncertainty
Atomic mass constant		mu=1u{displaystyle m_{mathrm {u} }=1,mathrm {u} }	6973166053904000000♠1.660539040(20)×10−27 kg	6992120000000000000♠1.2×10−8
Avogadro constant		NA,L{displaystyle N_{mathrm {A} },L}	7023602214085700000♠6.022140857(74)×1023 mol−1	6992120000000000000♠1.2×10−8
Boltzmann constant		k=kB=R/NA{displaystyle k=k_{mathrm {B} }=R/N_{mathrm {A} }}	6977138064851999999♠1.38064852(79)×10−23 J⋅K−1	6993570000000000000♠5.7×10−7
Faraday constant		F=NAe{displaystyle F=N_{mathrm {A} }e}	7004964853328900000♠96485.33289(59) C⋅mol−1	6991620000000000000♠6.2×10−9
first radiation constant		c1=2πhc2{displaystyle c_{1}=2pi hc^{2}}	3.741 771 790(46) × 10−16 W⋅m2	1.2 × 10−8
	for spectral radiance	c1L=c1/π{displaystyle c_{mathrm {1L} }=c_{1}/pi }	1.191 042 953(15) × 10−16 W⋅m2⋅sr−1	1.2 × 10−8
Loschmidt constant	at T{displaystyle T} = 273.15 K and p{displaystyle p} = 101.325 kPa	n0=NA/Vm{displaystyle n_{0}=N_{mathrm {A} }/V_{mathrm {m} }}	2.686 7811(15) × 1025 m−3	5.7 × 10−7
gas constant		R{displaystyle R}	7000831445980000000♠8.3144598(48) J⋅mol−1⋅K−1	6993570000000000000♠5.7×10−7
molar Planck constant		NAh{displaystyle N_{mathrm {A} }h}	3.990 312 7110(18) × 10−10 J⋅s⋅mol−1	4.5 × 10−10
molar volume of an ideal gas	at T{displaystyle T} = 273.15 K and p{displaystyle p} = 100 kPa	Vm=RT/p{displaystyle V_{mathrm {m} }=RT/p}	2.271 0947(13) × 10−2 m3⋅mol−1	5.7 × 10−7
	at T{displaystyle T} = 273.15 K and p{displaystyle p} = 101.325 kPa		2.241 3962(13) × 10−2 m3⋅mol−1	5.7 × 10−7
Sackur–Tetrode constant	at T{displaystyle T} = 1 K and p{displaystyle p} = 100 kPa	S0/R=52{displaystyle S_{0}/R={frac {5}{2}}} +ln⁡[(2πmukT/h2)3/2kT/p]{displaystyle +ln left[(2pi m_{mathrm {u} }kT/h^{2})^{3/2}kT/pright]}	−1.151 7084(14)	1.2 × 10−6
	at T{displaystyle T} = 1 K and p{displaystyle p} = 101.325 kPa		−1.164 8714(14)	1.2 × 10−6
second radiation constant		c2=hc/k{displaystyle c_{2}=hc/k}	1.438 777 36(83) × 10−2 m⋅K	5.7 × 10−7
Stefan–Boltzmann constant		σ=π2k4/60ℏ3c2{displaystyle sigma =pi ^{2}k^{4}/60hbar ^{3}c^{2}}	6992567036700000000♠5.670367(13)×10−8 W⋅m−2⋅K−4	6994229999999999999♠2.3×10−6
Wien displacement law constant		benergy=hck−1/{displaystyle b_{text{energy}}=hck^{-1}/} 4.965 114 231...	6997289777290000000♠2.8977729(17)×10−3 m⋅K	6993570000000000000♠5.7×10−7
Wien-Bonal entropy displacement law constant[25]		bentropy=hck−1/{displaystyle b_{text{entropy}}=hck^{-1}/} 4.791 267 357...	3.002 9152(05) × 10−3 m⋅K	5.7 × 10−7

Adopted values

Quantity		Symbol	Value (SI units)	Relative standard uncertainty
conventional value of Josephson constant[26]		KJ−90{displaystyle K_{mathrm {J-90} }}	4.835 979 × 1014 Hz⋅V−1	defined
conventional value of von Klitzing constant[27]		RK−90{displaystyle R_{mathrm {K-90} }}	25 812.807 Ω	defined
molar mass	constant	Mu=M(12C)/12{displaystyle M_{mathrm {u} }=M({}^{12}mathrm {C} )/12}	1 × 10−3 kg⋅mol−1	defined
	of carbon-12	M(12C)=NAm(12C){displaystyle M({}^{12}mathrm {C} )=N_{mathrm {A} }m({}^{12}mathrm {C} )}	1.2 × 10−2 kg⋅mol−1	defined
standard acceleration of gravity (gee, free-fall on Earth)		gn{displaystyle g_{mathrm {n} }}	9.806 65 m⋅s−2	defined
standard atmosphere		atm{displaystyle mathrm {atm} }	101 325 Pa	defined
Caesium standard (defines the SI second)		ΔνCs	9 192 631 770 Hz	defined

See also

• Variables commonly used in physics

References

• 
  Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2008). "CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2006". Reviews of Modern Physics. 80 (2): 633–730. arXiv:0801.0028. Bibcode:2008RvMP...80..633M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633.
  


• 
  Barrow, John D. (2002), The Constants of Nature; From Alpha to Omega - The Numbers that Encode the Deepest Secrets of the Universe, Pantheon Books, ISBN 978-0-375-42221-8.

External links

• 
  Sixty Symbols, University of Nottingham


• IUPAC - Gold Book